Selim Ibraimi- We have written about state and non-state actors; however, regarding this specific realm of non-state actors—and looking beyond states classified as “irresponsible”—insufficient attention has been paid to the geopolitics of narrative and its historical significance in conflict zones (e.g., the Western Balkans), disputed territories, identity issues, religious clashes, and the like.
The geopolitics of narrative falls under the umbrella of “soft power”—which can arguably be described as the most potent “weapon” of a state, government, or people. Although the term “geopolitics of narrative” might suggest a work of fiction, in the reality of the 21st century, it encompasses far more: it addresses real, contemporary issues while simultaneously maintaining a focus on the past.
During the Cold War, the term held a different meaning, whereas in the Middle Ages and subsequent eras, this specific form of geopolitical expression—as we recognize it today or as it has appeared in the last two centuries—did not exist.
Nevertheless, history shows us that prior to the advent of modern publishing, epic tales, chronicles, lahuta songs, and other forms fulfilled the same function. In the past, narratives centered on themes of war; passed down from generation to generation, they became deeply rooted in the collective consciousness of peoples.
The geopolitics of narrative played a pivotal role in this process, acting as a force for either good or bad. Its foundation rests on legends and heroism, as well as on the battles and struggles of nations against one another—such as the medieval conflicts involving the Ottomans, Venetians, Habsburgs, and other regional powers.
Today, however, the rapid spread of the internet, social media, and artificial intelligence within the context of narrative geopolitics introduces a host of new risks. Let us now turn our focus to the Western Balkans, where states continue to grapple with the challenges of their mutual relations.
Although regional governments have expressed a desire to move past the past, the evidence shows that historical grievances remain the primary factor hindering the resolution of key issues—ranging from inter-ethnic tensions and identity disputes to interstate conflicts.
Narratives have played a significant role in the region; it is therefore hardly surprising that deep—and seemingly intractable—divisions persist among the peoples to this day. For example, the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 inspired numerous works and narratives that influenced the shaping of national policies.
Through various stories—particularly epic songs—Serbs have kept the history of this battle alive across generations, fueling and constructing agendas directed against neighboring peoples.
This, in turn, incited territorial conflicts of devastating proportions. From the Middle Ages to the modern era, epic storytelling has played various roles, particularly depending on how the leaders of a nation or population chose to utilize it.
A distinct narrative was essential for peoples in need of grand national projects. A concrete example is the book on the life and deeds of George Castrioti Scanderbeg (1405–1468), published by Marin Barleti around 1508–1510.
In his work, Barleti aimed, among other things, to portray Skanderbeg’s battles in defense of Europe against the Ottomans. During the National Awakening, this figure was exalted as a symbol of Albanian efforts toward state-building. In this regard, one can also cite the League of Prizren of 1878; many chroniclers, oral accounts, and traditional bards have identified this event as one of the most significant for the Albanian people.
Before and after the Balkan Wars, this type of storytelling continued to gain ground, while rhapsodes and narratives played a pivotal role in bolstering the morale of fighters during and after these conflicts. Thus, in 1847, the Montenegrin ruler Petar Njegoš (1813–1851) published the work “The Mountain Wreath” in Cetinje.
This work is said to have elevated the epic of the 1389 Battle of Kosovo into a narrative of greater magnitude. The Battle of Kosovo, along with the works of Njegoš and other Serbian authors, was leveraged by Serbian political circles to instigate wars.
Vuk Karadžić (1787–1864)—a Serbian philologist from the Šumadija region—also played a significant role in this regard through publications issued from Vienna, Austria. In the Albanian context, one might also mention the Siege of Shkodra (1912–1913) and the ensuing period, when a series of epic songs and narratives were specifically employed to instill a strong sense of inspiration among the population. However, in cases where the opposing side suffered defeat in the same battle, the narrative took on a different tone, later serving to justify the war and the struggle for freedom.
We have observed the same phenomenon in the Balkans from 1991 to the present day, with the glorification of figures who are viewed negatively and have been condemned by institutions of international judicial proceedings. One could also cite other authors who have used epic narratives or—in modern times—geopolitical stories as a “weapon” to glorify a nation or to combat others.
Throughout history, narratives have also been crafted to suit the whims of governments, sometimes in an attempt to create a false image of coexistence (as in the case of the former Yugoslavia). Consequently, the geopolitical narratives of our time may prove even more dangerous. This is not merely due to technological advancements, but to a more significant reason: the loss of democratic control over narratives, the rise of ideologies, and the strengthening of other states.
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